Ancient Sites

Choquequirao

Imagine Machu Picchu—that spectacular Inca citadel laced in mist and mystery hidden atop a steep jungle ridge. Now imagine it without the crowds, buses, trains and hotels; just the ruins, the forest and you. This is what awaits you at Choquequirao, Machu Picchu's relatively unknown sister where the persevering traveler is rewarded with the raw, unadulterated thrill of discovery.

Nestled a precarious 5,000 feet above the rushing waters of the Apurímac River and hedged in by densely forested slopes, Choquequirao (from the Quechua name Chuqi K'iraw, "Cradle of Gold") is a partially-excavated Inca citadel built by a successor to Pachacuti, the emperor responsible for Machu Picchu. Most researchers attribute it to Pachacuti's son, Topa Inca, who ruled from 1471 to 1493 and apparently modeled Choquequirao closely after his father's hidden refuge which lies some 35 miles to the northeast as the crow flies. Both cities are roughly the same size and are believed to have served identical religious, political and economic purposes. Choquequirao likely acted as a regional cultural and religious center as well as a vital link and checkpoint in between Cuzco and the jungles of Vilcabamba. Evidence also points to Choquequirao as the Incas' final refuge following the siege of Cuzco in 1536, where Manco Inca and his successors held out against the Spanish until 1572, at which point the city was abruptly abandoned.

The first outsider to stumble upon Choquequirao was the Spanish explorer Juan Arias Díaz, in 1710. In spite of this, and subsequent visits by Cosme Bueno, Eugene de Santiges and Leonce Agrand, archaeologists took little notice of the ruins until the explorer famous for putting Machu Picchu on the map, Hiram Bingham, checked it out in 1909. Excavations began in the 1970s and restoration efforts, which are still ongoing, commenced in 1993.

After the fashion of the Inca capital and all of the empire's major cities, Choquequirao was designed in accordance with the movements of the sun and stars. Its primary ritual areas include the temple off of the main plaza and a hill that was flattened for the purpose of performing ceremonies, while residential areas include administrators' mansions, artisans' houses and spacious dormitories. There are numerous farming terraces, warehouses, water channels and water springs, including a stone aqueduct which is being restored so that water will once again flow through it. More recently, a staircase has been built from the ruins down to the river where you can go for a swim.

Currently, Choquequirao sees just over one percent of the number of tourists who visit Machu Picchu every year and the journey involves an arduous, but scenic, two-day hike or ride on horseback. Cachora, the nearest town at 20 miles away, is the starting point for the trek and can be reached via a four-hour taxi ride from Cuzco. The ruins lie 10,120 feet above sea level, have an extension of 4,448 acres and belong to the La Convención province of the Cusco region.

Huaca Pucllana

Imagine an adobe temple and building complex stretching over nearly eight square miles where Lima's ancient inhabitants traded alpaca textiles and guinea pigs and where high priests sacrificed women and children to the gods. Fifteen centuries later, urban development may have shrunk it down to less than two and a half square miles but the great adobe brick structures of the Huaca Pucllana still stand and visitors can browse a collection of its artifacts.

Archaeologists tell us that the Huaca Pucllana was built by the Lima culture in the fifth century AD and served as one if its most important ceremonial and administrative centers. The Lima culture blossomed on Peru's central coast between 200 and 700 AD and a group of its priests, endowed with both religious and political power, apparently governed from this spot. Constructed with adobe bricks in a bookshelf fashion that's proven to be earthquake resistant, the complex was divided by a wall into two sections according to its two main functions. The administrative sector consisted of small buildings, squares, ramps, patios and storage rooms whereas the ceremonial sector contained a pyramidal temple.

For over 300 years the Lima people worshiped, discussed public and political matters, conducted trade and stored goods at the Huaca Pucllana. Remains unearthed here reveal that artistic ceramics, knitted alpaca and vicuña fabrics, baskets, fishing nets and food products were the primary trade items. Crops like beans, squash, sweet potatoes and lúcuma were cultivated, animals like ducks and llamas were raised and fish, scallops, clams, mussels and crabs were harvested from the sea. People apparently led very basic and peaceful lives carrying out day-to-day tasks until the Wari Empire conquered the area in 700 AD and transformed the temple into a cemetery for its elite. The complex would subsequently fall into the hands of the Ichma and Inca cultures in turn.

Nowadays these ancient ruins rise up in the middle of a modern residential area of Miraflores. Excavation only began relatively recently, in the early 1980's, and is ongoing. Visitors can take a guided tour up to the top of the temple and through the small park of native flora and fauna, then check out artifacts uncovered here at the on-site museum.

Kuelap

The remote cloud forests of Peru's Amazonas department hold an ancient walled citadel of such grand proportions and archaeological significance that it has been hailed as the Machu Picchu of northern Peru. Pre-dating that world-renowned construction of Inca origin by many centuries, Kuelap is one of the most impressive ruins to have been left behind by the Chachapoyas civilization. A reputedly fair-skinned people that offered strong resistance to Inca domination, the Chachapoyas may have been one of the most advanced cultures to have sprung up in Peru's eastern jungle region but much of their history remains veiled in a thick shroud of mist.

The ruins of Kuelap (meaning cold place in reference to its low nighttime temperatures) are perched on a ridge above the Utcubamba river valley in the midst of verdant tropical forests dripping with orchids and bromeliads. Precisely when the Chachapoyas began its construction remains unknown, but some researchers claim it was built around 800 AD at the apex of Chachapoyas culture and occupied until the Early Colonial period (1532-1570). The site's sheer size rivals that of major archaeological sites throughout the Americas and it is thought to have taken 200 years to complete. Extending over an area of 14 acres enclosed by 70-foot walls, it consists of millions of cubic feet of stone (three times more than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt) and features an advanced rainwater drainage system. The complex comprises several distinct levels upon which over 400 structures were built, the majority of them cylindrical. These include a watchtower, a castle, homes and food storage buildings, many of which were adorned with symbolic friezes and zigzag patterns. The principal entranceway is a narrow passage flanked by high walls, leaning towards each other as they rise, which some postulate was designed for defensive reasons and others believe to be symbolic of a giant vulva.

The function of this enormous walled complex is unknown, but a few plausible theories exist. It could have been a fortress built to fend off the Wari Empire to the south or it may have served as a refuge during emergencies. Others believe it was simply a fortified city or an administrative center ruled by an aristocracy invested with political and religious power. After the site was abandoned for unknown reasons almost no one knew of its existence until Juan Crisóstomo Nieto, a judge from Chachapoyas, surveyed the area in 1843 and brought it to the attention of archaeologists. Today there is a road to Kuelap but you can also hike or ride a horse from the nearby town of Tingo, 5,900 feet above sea level, up to the ruins at 9,840 feet above sea level.

Moche Archaeological Sites

Between approximately 100 and 800 AD the Moche civilization thrived along Peru's northern coast from the present-day Ancash region in the south to Piura in the north. Also known as the Mochica, this sophisticated agriculture-based society was made up of talented ceramicists, goldsmiths and architects. They built great pyramids, engineered irrigation systems and produced beautiful pottery depicting scenes from their daily lives. Rather than as a unified empire, it seems that the Moche lived in independent polities concentrated around the valleys of the Lambayeque, Jequetepeque, Chicama, Moche, Virú, Chao, Santa and Nepeña rivers. The final demise of the Moche culture is thought to have been precipitated by prolonged El Niño floods and droughts, which toppled their religious faith and provoked social unrest. The Lambayeque and Chimú people, inheritors of Moche traditions, would later move in to occupy Moche lands.

Today, the northern coast is a treasure trove of fascinating Moche huacas (tombs or shrines) and museums waiting to be explored. Many Moche pyramids still stand to this day and excavations are ongoing at a number of these ancient sites. Visits to Túcume, the Royal Tombs of Sipán Museum, San José de Moro, El Brujo and the Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna archaeological complex (ordered north to south) are especially rewarding. A visit to these Moche sites can also be combined with a side trip to some of the northern coast's beautiful beaches, Trujillo's historic colonial downtown, and other pre-Columbian ruins such as the vast Chimú city of Chan Chan.

At Túcume, in the Lambayeque region south of the La Leche River, the remains of 26 major Moche pyramids and mounds stand alongside a very informative site museum. The site was an important regional center and today locals believe it to be a source of shamanic power. Nearby, in the city of Lambayeque, the Royal Tombs of Sipán Museum exhibits the contents of the famous tomb of El Señor de Sipán (the Lord of Sipán), found at the Huaca Rajada pyramid not far from Chiclayo. Excavated by archaeologist Walter Alva in 1987, the Lord of Sipán tomb is deemed one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of recent years considering it was untouched by thieves and contained the remains of a prominent Moche warrior priest.

The San José de Moro ceremonial and funerary complex of the La Libertad region provides a glimpse of some of the most elaborate Moche burial and ritual arrangements. Located in the Jequetepeque Valley, the site was occupied continuously for 1,000 years and evidences the transition that transpired upon the fall of the Moche culture and the rise of the Lambayeque. Further south along the Chicama River, the El Brujo ("The Sorcerer") archaeological complex also reflects a succession of distinct cultures, from the builders of the Huaca Prieta to the Moche, Lambayeque and Chimú. The Moche constructed three large temples here, including the impressive Huaca Cao Viejo where the ornate tomb of a well-preserved mummified Moche woman was discovered in 2005. Near the city of Trujillo lies an archaeological complex named after its foremost temples, the Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna. Before it was partially destroyed by Spanish gold hunters, the Huaca del Sol was Peru's largest pre-Columbian structure, but the Huaca de la Luna is in much better condition and is adorned with colorful symbolic murals.

Nazca Lines

The desolate plains of the Nazca Desert guard a secret that has preoccupied researchers for decades. Over a thousand years ago the desert agriculturists of Nazca (100 BC to AD 750) traced miles and miles of shallow lines on the Pampa Colorada ("Red Plain") in the form of giant animals, geometric shapes and straight lines. The majority being visible only from the air, the geoglyphs remained unknown for many centuries until people in an airplane spotted them by chance in the 1930s. And yet why would the Nazca, a civilization who apparently had no means of viewing their own designs from the air, go to the effort of creating hundreds of such enormous figures?

First, let's consider the less formidable question of how the Nazca people managed to create these puzzling geoglyphs. The surface of the Nazca Desert consists of dark reddish-brown stones with light-colored soil underneath, so what they did to create a visible contrast was simply clear the stones away. As far as creating figures on a large scale, they likely made use of basic surveying equipment and tools like wooden stakes and grids. Just as their weavers made use of grids to create ornate woven designs, those responsible for the geoglyphs probably used a grid system to replicate small images on a larger scale.

The animals the Nazca chose to depict on the desert floor include monkeys, spiders, birds, sharks, whales, llamas and lizards. Plants and humans are also represented. The most numerous geoglyphs, however, consist of geometric shapes such as triangles, trapezoids, circles, spirals and straight lines that stretch up to nine miles long. A few of the images, including human forms, were etched into steep hillsides rather than on flat ground. One might wonder how it is possible that such superficial, impermanent drawings could survive in such excellent condition over so many hundreds of years, but the answer lies in the erosion-free desert climate. The Nazca Desert is one of the driest places on Earth, which combined with its lack of wind and constant year-round temperatures of 77°F, makes for optimal preservation of the geoglyphs.

But what could the purpose behind these huge images have been, and why are there so many of them? There's still no consensus among specialists, but most believe them to hold religious significance. According to Johan Reinhard, the Nazca people worshiped mountain gods, who were believed to control the weather (hence the water supply) and protect humans. The geoglyphs were supposedly associated with the worship of these deities, the geometric designs representing water flow and the biomorphs symbolizing fertility. The straight lines could have been sacred paths leading to shrines where these gods could be worshiped.

Others have offered less plausible theories. Paul Kosok proposed the designs were huge astronomical observatories, Henri Stierlin believed them to be giant looms and David Johnson and Steve Mabee hypothesized that the geometrical designs map out the underground sources of water. Still others have claimed the geoglyphs to be evidence of human or alien flight. Jim Woodman suggested that the lines indicate that the Nazca developed some sort of flight technology, such as hot air balloons, and Erich von Däniken went so far as to postulate that they were an ancient airfield used by extraterrestrials for landing their spacecraft. So far, no archaeological evidence has turned up in support of such unorthodox theories.

Sacsayhuamán

Perhaps the greatest of all the Incas' architectural achievements, Sacsayhuamán sits proudly on a hill overlooking the empire's erstwhile capital city of Cuzco. A massive walled complex attributed to Pachacuti, its bastions, towers, temples and aqueducts exhibit such stunningly masterful stonemasonry that when the Spanish beheld its grandeur they refused to believe that it was the work of mortals. Even today, after suffering partial destruction at the hands of the Spanish, Sacsayhuamán still takes the breath away of all who visit and is a living testament to both the architectural expertise and administrative mastery of Tawantinsuyu.

While better known as a military fortress, early chroniclers referred to Sacsayhuamán as a temple called the "Royal House of the Sun" devoted to sun worship. It was also fundamental in the overall design of the Incas' glorious capital city, given Cuzco was conceived as a gigantic puma with Sacsayhuamán as its head. The complex's Quechua name is usually translated as "satisfied falcon" but there are a few alternative theories such as "royal eagle" and "speckled head".

How the Incas accomplished the herculean task of creating Sacsayhuamán eludes scientists to this day. While they have not resorted to the conquistadors' theory that demons were the responsible party, researchers still have difficulty grasping how the Incas transported gargantuan rocks weighing nearly 200 tons and fit them together with such precision that not even a blade of grass could fit through the mortarless joints. According to some estimates, 20,000 to 30,000 men would have been required to complete the job and it would have taken about 60 years. The Incas' structures are also remarkable for their earthquake resistance. Built leaning inward with perfectly interlocking stones of irregular shapes, the walls of Sacsayhuamán have survived calamitous earthquakes that razed Spanish structures to the ground.

Among Sacsayhuamán's most outstanding structures are its outer tiered walls built parallel to one another in a zigzag pattern. Reaching 20 feet high and stretching up to 1,312 feet long, the walls contain colossal boulders that dwarf the tallest of men. The Spanish removed the stones in the upper portion of the walls in order to construct churches in Cuzco, however, which is why the walls are intact only up to a certain height. In the enclosed area three fortified towers once stood, forming a triangle. The central tower, known as Muyucmarca ("circular place"), was cylindrical while the other two, Paucarmarca and Sallacmarca, were rectangular. Muyucmarca consists of three concentric circular stone walls connected by three channels supposedly designed to conduct water into the tower, which was purportedly a clean water reservoir. Each of these towers was destroyed by the Spanish and today only foundations remain. The Incas also constructed an impressive network of underground passageways that connected Sacsayhuamán with other Inca structures in Cuzco.

One of the most decisive battles in the conquistadors' final defeat of the Incas took place at Sacsayhuamán in 1536. When Manco Inca rose up in rebellion against the Spanish, who had formed a settlement in Cuzco, he occupied Sacsayhuamán and sent forces down to attack the Spanish from the hilltop fortress. Although the Spanish lacked reinforcements and were very nearly overcome, they somehow managed to break through Manco's defenses and into the fortress, where they exterminated the native troops in two days' time. However, the heroism of one Inca nobleman would not go unnoticed. Cahuide, as he was known, occupied Muyucmarca, the last tower to remain in Inca hands, defending it from each and every enemy soldier who attempted to seize it. When it became clear that victory would go to the Spanish, Cahuide took his life by jumping from the top of the tower, preserving his own honor and dignity from the hands of his enemy.

Today, Inti Raymi celebrations are held near the ruins each year on June 24. Sacsayhuamán is located approximately half a mile from Cuzco's San Cristóbal church and is easily reached by foot or bicycle, but taxis and buses can also take you there.